An Elementary Study of Chemistry
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The Project Gutenberg EBook of An Elementary Study of Chemistry, by William McPherson and William Edwards Henderson This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: An Elementary Study of Chemistry Author: William McPherson William Edwards Henderson Release Date: March 18, 2007 [EBook #20848] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ELEMENTARY STUDY OF CHEMISTRY *** *** Produced by Elaine Walker, Josephine Paolucci and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
ANTOINE LAURENT LAVOISIER Famousf o rhisc arei n quantitatvie expeirmentsf ,or demonsrtating thert ue nature oc fombustion, for introducing system into the naming and grouping of chemica lsubstances. Executed (1794 )duirngt he French Revoluiton because of hsi conneciton with the government Thsi pciturei s taken from a Frenche ngraving of 1799. The panel represents Lavoisie ras he si being arrestedi n hsil aboratory byt he Revolutionary Commttiee AN ELEMENTARY STUDY OF CHEMISTRY BY WILLIAM McPHERSON, PH.D. PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY AND WILLIAM EDWARDS HENDERSON, PH.D. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTR ,YOHIO STATE UNIVERSITY REVISED EDITION GINN & COMPANY BOSTON * NEW YORK * CHICAGO * LONDON COPYRIGHT, 1905, 1906, BY WLILIAM MCPHERSON AND WILLAIM E .HENDERSON ALL RIGHTS RESERVED The Athenæum Press GINN & COMPANY * PROPRIETORS BOSTON * U.S.A. * Transcriber's noet :Mino rytpoh save beenc orrecetd. PREFACE Io nfefirngt ihb sook tot eacher sof elemenatc yrhemisrt yhte auhtorsl ayn o lciam ot any great originail .yth tIas bee nthier iam ot prepare at ex-tbooc konrtsuetcd along lines whic hhave become recognized as bests iuetd ot an elementaryt reatmen toft he subejtc .Aht te sameit me htey have made a conssiettn effotr to make the etx tlcea ri noultine, simple i ntslye and alnguage, conservatively modern in piotn o fivew ,and thorouglhy teachalbe. The queitson as to what shla lbei nculded i nan elemetnaryet txon chemtsiyri sperhap shte most perplexing one wciha ha ntuhor mutsa nswer .Whliea ne tnhusiatsicc hemist wia htb roadu ndesratnding oft hes ciencei s very aptot go beyond the capacity o fhte leemenatyr tsudent,t he auhto srofet siht xt, after a nexperience of many yeasr ,cannot hlep belieivng thatt het endenc yhas been rather inht e ohte rridectio.nI nmanyt etx sno metnio nat a llis made of fundamentall aw so fchemci laaitcon becauset hei rcomelpet presentation is quite beyondt he comprehension of the sutde,tn whereai s nman ycasesti i spossibel to preseht tne essetnial feautre so fhtese alws i na way that will be o fre laasstsiance i nhte undesratnding of the sicence .For exampel, it i sa dficifutl matet rto deducet hel aw of mas sacito nin any very simlpe wa;y yett he eelmeatnyr sutden tca nreadli ycomprehend htatr eaciton sare reveisrelb,a nd htatt hep iotn o fequliibirumd epends upon, rather simple conditions .The auhtor sbelieve tha titi swor htwelih ot present suc hprincipel sin eve nan eelmetnar yand paitr lamanne rbecause htey are of great assistance ot hte generla sutdetn, and because hte ymake af oundation upo nwcihht he utsdetn who conitnues hsi sutdies ot more advanced course scan secureylb iudl. Thea uhtor shaven o apoolige sot make fo rthe exetnt ot wihcht he yhave made use ot fhe theoryo f leetcroylitc dsisoication. It is ineivatelb htai t nany rapidyl deveolipng sicence there will be difference sof opiinoi nn regardt ot he vlaue o fceriatht neoires .There ca nbe no quetsio ,nhoweve,rt ha thte oultine oht feht eo yrof dsisoicaito nhere presenetd ii s naccord w htihte ivew sof the veyr great mojarity of the chemtsi sof hte presetn time. Moreove,ri sti tnroducitonot ht e exetnt ot wihcht he auhtor shave presented ti simlpiifesr ahter thai nncreases the diffciluites wti hwcihht hed eveolpmetno f hte principel sofht es cience is attended. The oxygents andard fo ratomi cweigth sha sbeen adopted throughou thte ettx .The Internationa lCommtiete, ot whcih si assignedt he dtu yo fyearly reporting a resived tsilo fthe aotmi cweights of the elemenst ,has adoptedht si satndard ofrht er rieport ,and htere is no longe ran yauhtoirytf ort he odle rhydroge natsndard. The ahtuo srdo no tbeileve hta thte adopito nof the oxygen satndard irtnoduce san yrela dfifciluitesi nmaikng perfectlyc leart he methodsb ywihca hotmi cwieghts are calcualted. Thep rolbemsa ppended ott hev airouc shapetrs haveb ee nchose nwihta iv ewn oo tnylo fifixng hte prinicples devolepedi nhtet ex tint he mindo fhte tsudent, but also of enalbing ihm ot answers uc hquestion sas arise in ih salboraotyr wokr .Theya re ,thereofre ,moreo r less practicali ncharacet.rI ti s no tnecessat yrha t llaoht fem sholud be svloed ,htough wtihf ew excepitont shel ists are nool tng .The answesr to the questions are not idrectly given in thet ex tas a rlue ,bu tca nbei fnerred from hte satetmetn smade .They hterefore reqiure independent thougth on thep ar toft hes utdetn. Wti hveyrf ew exceptions onyls uce hxpeirmenst arei ncludedi nhte eta tx scannot be easilyc airredo b tu ythe tsuden.tI tis expected that htese willb e perofrmed b ythe teachea rtht eel cture table .Direciton sof ralboratory wor kbyt he utsdena trep usilbhedi na s eparatev loume. Whielt hea tuhosrb elieve htat the moi tsmpoatr tnufncitono fhte eelmetna yrettxsi to develop the prinicples of thes ciencet ,her yecognize the impotranceo fsome idscussiono fhtep ratcciaa lplpication oft hese pirniclpes ot oru eveyrda yilef. Consideralbe spacesi ht ereofre devotedt o hti sphase ofc hemistry. The teaches rhodlu suppelmen tthsi dsicussion whenever possibel b yhaivngt he lcass ivis tdeffiretnaf cotires where chemical processesa ree mlpoyed. Atlhought ihet si tx snowof rhte rift tsime ofefred ot etache sro fleementary chemsitryti , ha snevehtreelss been used b ya number o fetachers during the pas tthree yeasr .The prese tnediiton has bee nlargeyl rewtiretni n hte ilgh toht fe crcitisims offered, and we desrie ot express orut hank sot the many teache srwho have hepled us in tihs respetc ,espeicla ylto Dr. Wiillam Lolyd Evan sofht sil aborator,y a teacher of wide experience, fo rihs cotninued ietnre tsand heplfulness .We also ver ycordiall yslociti correspondence wiht etache srwho ma yifnd idffciuliteso ri naccruacie sin the text. The auhto srwis hot make acknoweldgmenst ofrt he phootgraphs and engravings o feminent chemtsi srfom wihch thec uts inculded int het ext were atke;nt o Messsr .Eillo ttand Fr,y London ,Enlgand,of rt hato f Ramsa;y ot The Macmilaln Companf yoht rose of Davy and Dalot,nt akenf romt he Century Science Seire ;sotht e L. E. KnottA pparatus Company ,Bosot,nf ort hato fBunsen. THE AUTHORS OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY COLUMBUS, OHIO CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE .II NTRODUCITON1 .II OXYGEN13 .IIIHYDROGEN28 IV. WATER AND HYDROGEN DIOXIDE40 V. THE ATOMIC THEORY59 VI. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND CALCULATIONS68 VII. NITROGEN AND THE RARE ELEMENTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE78 VIII .THEA TMOSPHERE83 IX. SOLUTIONS94 XA .CIDS, BASES, AND SALTS; NEUTRALZIATION106 XI. VALENCE116 XI.I COMPOUNDS OF NTIROGEN122 X .IIIREVERSBILE REACITONS AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM137 XVI .SULPHURA NDI TS COMPOUNDS143 XV. PERIODIC LAW165 XVI. THE CHLORINE FAMILY174 XVII .CARBONA ND SOME OF ITS SIMPLER COMPOUNDS196 XV.III FLAMES,—LILUMINANTS213 XIX. MOLECULAR WEIGHTS, ATOMIC WEIGHTS, FORMULAS223 XX. THE PHOSPHORUS FAMLIY238 XXI. SLIICON ,ITTANIUM ,BORON257 XXII. THE METALS267 XXIII. THE ALKALI METALS274 XXVI .THE ALKALINE-EARTH FAMILY300 XXV. THE MAGNESIUM FAMLIY316 XXVI .THE ALUMINIUM FAMLIY327 XXVI .ITHEI RON FAMILY338 XXVII.I COPPER, MERCURA ,YND SLIVER356 XXXI .ITN ANDL EAD370 XXX. MANGANESE AND CHROMIUM379 XXXI. GOLD AND THE PLATINUM FAMILY390 XXXII .SOME SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS397 INDEX421 APPENDIX AFacing back cover APPENDIX BrensIe idckbaov c LIST OF FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE ANTOINE LAURENTL AVOISEIRrFcespieonti JOSEPH PRIESTLEY14 JOHN DALTON60 WILLAIM RAMSAY82 DMITRI IVANOVITCH MENDELÉEFF166 HENRI MOSISAN176 SIR HUMPHRY DAVY276 ROBER TWLIHELM BUNSEN298 AN ELEMENTARY STUDY OF CHEMISTRY CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The natural sciences.cobet iidevs metaht tneeno eht Be erof ew avda ecnvery far in the tsdu yfon taru,e large study mustb e idivdedi nota n umbeo rf morel imtiedo ne sfort hec onveinence of the invesitgaota r swell as oft hes utdetn. These moreil miteds tuidesa re called the natur la s ic ence.s Sincet hes tudy o fnarutesi vid ided int his wa yfo rmere conveinence ,and no tbecause hterea si n yidivisoni n natrue itsel,f it ofteh nappent shat the dfiefrents icencesa rev eri yntimatley relateda ,nda ht oroug hknoweldge o fan yone oft hem invvloe sa conisderalbe acquiantance wiht sever laothesr. Thust he boatin tsmu tsknow something abou tanimla sas w llea sabo tualpnst ;hte tsuden to fhuma nphysiolog ymuts know sometihng aboup thyiscsa swella sa botuht ep arst of theb ody. Initmate relation o fchemsirty and physics.oscleeralet dnit ih sre two sciences ehc dna a yrtsimcssihy P way, andi t si no teasyot make a presice idstinction betwee nhtemI . na generla wayi tma ybe saidt ha thtey are both concerned wtii hnainmaet matet rrahtert ha nwiht lviing ,and morep articularyl with thec hanges wihch suc hmatter may be madeot undergo. These change smuts be considered more lcosley before a deifntiion o fhte two sciences can be vige.n Physciac lhanges.ocpmsotii nht eterationby an alteatr.n io mof ascle Onc ah sfoi sgnseacconot ied mpan Whe naul mp ofc oal i sbrokent he ipeces do no tidfef rrfomt he oirignlaul mps avei nisze .A rod of iron may be brokeni tno ipece;si t may be magnetzied ;ti may be heated unitl i tgolw;s ti ma ybe metled .nI none of htese change sha shte composition of the iron bee nafeftced. The pieces of rionht ,e magneitzed iron, the glowing rion ,hte mleetdi ro ,nare ujts as rtlu yrio nas washt e original rod .Suga rma ybe idssloved i nwaetr, bu tniehtert he sugar nor the wate ris changedi n compoisiton .The resluitngl iqiud haht se sweet taste of sugar; moreover hte wate rmay be evaporaetd b yheaitng and hte suga rrecovered unchanged .Such changea sre called alicysphc ahgnse. DEFINITION: eihctw hmdooch iosto pnnnovi tievgenoal rca sanhgth aei nees oPhysical ch of the matter. Chemical changes .ehto ogregnahc rr teatMdeuny maisitmoop slanoi whis ints cch i ompf nehul aeretW .d cola is burned ashe sand invisible gases are ofrmed wcih hare enitreyl dfifere tni ncompotisio nand properties from the originlac oa.lA r od of iron whene xposedot mioia tsr si gradulaly changed inotr ust ,whcih i senitr yleidfferenrf tomt he oirigna liron. When sugari sheaetd a albc ksubsatnce si ofrmed wihchi sneihter swee tnor suloelb i nwaetr .Such changes are eivdetnyl queti idfferen trfom hte physcial change sujts described ,fo rint hem news ubtsances are formed in lpace oft he one sundergiongc hange .Change sofht si ik nd are c lla edc hemical changes. DEFINTIION :e a chanh involvso ehwci sra ehtchl geanheCcamir.ten thge impose co nfotioim tat eh How to distingusih between physical and chemcial changes .s it nowaal eys ysat ot llew otssc alihhctI a igven change beolngs ,and man ycases wil lreqiure careuf lhtough ton the patr of the utsdetn .The etst quetsio nin allc asesi ,s Has hte compotisio nof the substance bee nchanged? Usuall yhtsic an be answered b ya study o fthe propeitre sofht e subtsance before and atfert he change ,isnce a change in compositio nsi atetnded by a change in properites . nIsome cases, however, only a trained observe rca ndecide hte question. Changes in physical state.psceai lacer ,isnce it isOne isacp yh sfolcsaldoushs geanchl e htiw deton eb likely ot prove msielading. tI i sa afmliia raftcht a ticei s changed inot waetr ,and waet rintos etam, by heaitng. Here we have rhtee idfferen tsubstance,s—the silod ice, the liquid waetr ,and hte gaseous setam,—the properiteso fwcihd hffie rwidyle .The chemsi tcanr eaidyls how ,however, that theserht eeb oidesh ave exactly the samec ompoisiton, being composed of the same subatsnce sint he same propotrion .Henceht ec hange from one of these subsatncesi not anohter i sa physcia lchange .Many ohte rsubstances may ,unde rsatiuelb conidtions ,be changed rfom sloid sinto liquids, or rfom ilquid sinot gase,s wtihotu changei ncomposiiton. Thu sbutte rand wa xwill melt when heated ;claohlo and gasoilne wi llevaporaet whe nexposed to the ai.r The htree tsates—soild,il qiud,a nd gas—are called hte htree physcia ltsateso fmatet.r Physcia land chemical properites .orepynp aMthg eiw duohtac tnisuance can be notetrei sfoa s buts subsatnce ot undergo chemcial change, and areht ereofrec llaedi st alicysphies properta eri stgnt ehes. Amo physica ltsate, color ,odo,r attse, size, shape ,wiegh .tOhter properites are oln ydsicovered whe nhte subatsnce undergoes chemicla change. These are calledi tsc mehlaciorp trepsie dhttac aol.hu Twes in f bruns in air, gunpowde rexlpodes wheni ginetd ,mklis our swhen exposed ota i.r Deifnition o fphysics andc hemsirtytI.possible is now a g neret oameken petwecs ahysisiitlad nob cnitdn chemsi.yrt DEFINTIION: hich deals with sit ehs icneecw at mr teicwhdoh sohthc eegnani s aolve inv nots icysPh changei nc ompostiion. DEFINTIION: hhtso eaeslw ti which d sciencei odlovnah we vr hci minteatanchs geeht si yrtsimehC changei nc omposiiton. Twof actors in all changes. all the Inwo tyhisrep ehht,ow cal,hemior ccal m hcihw segnahc rgdeunn car teat factosr mustb e atkei nnota ccount, namely, energyandrmtaet. Energy.ieh thgrf ga mor fallinhus watew ro.kT ret ood certhat bodtainahevei sp wot ehs iIt ilimaf a tcaf ra upon a water whee lrutn shte whele and i nthsi wayd oeht se wokro fhte mill.s Magnetized iron atrtacsti ro not stilef and hte moito not fhei ro nas ti movest oward shte magnet ca nbe made ot do wo .krWhe ncolasi bruned ticausest he engine to move andrt ansporst the loaded carrf som palce ot palce .When a body has htsip ower tod o worki tsis aid otp ossese snerg.y Law of conservation of energy .gryaCerl fupeexmeris ntevahohs t nw tahwhen one body patr siwhti ste en hte energ y sino tdetsroyed brt si tuansefrredt o anothe rbod yors ysetm of bodies. Just as energc yannot be detsroyed, neihter can it bec reaetd.I fone body gain sa cetria namou tno fenergy, some other body hasl ost a nequvialent amoutn .Thesef astc ares ummed upi ht nel aw of conservatio nof energ ywhich may be staetd ht u :snto rm iher,anotf orgnde eof mnocay rgneha cben e elihWed.sed yortetaero d botcre t innca Transformations of energy .dine svetii de ,troy des noratederc eb rehtien ncay rgne eghouthlA thttai tamy assume many differenf torms .Thut she falilng waet rmayt ru nhte leectirc generato rand produce a curren tof leecrtciity. The energyl os tbyt hef lilang waet rist hust ransofrmedi ntot hee nergy o fhte elecrtcic urren.t Tih sin tru nma ybec hangedi otn hte energ yof motio,n as whe nhte crruetn i sused for propleilnght ec asr ,ori nto the energyo fheata nd light, as wheni tsiu sed of rheaitnga ndil gthingt hec ar.s Agia,nt hee nergo y fcola may be converetdi otne nergy of heat ands ubsequetnylo fmoiton ,as whe nit si used as a ufei l nsetame ngines. Sincet he energy possessed by coal only become savaliaelb